A KIDS COUNT in Virginia Special Report
An Overview:
Children
and Violence
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A KIDS COUNT in Virginia Special Report | |||||
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An Overview: Children and Violence | |||||
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Produced by Voices for Virginia's Children Lisa Wood, Director of KIDS COUNT Suzanne Clark Johnson, Executive Director
This report was written and released December 1999; it was re-formatted and updated on the web site in March 2000.
Special Thanks to: - The Annie E. Casey Foundation | |||
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The prevention or reduction of violence as it affects the lives of young people is a priority focus for Voices for Virginia's Children. In researching and compiling this paper, we were struck by the complexity of the topic—in terms of likely causes and possible solutions. This special report is part of Voices effort to address this important issue. | |||
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Consider the following: • Nearly 13 children die each day from gunfire in
America.1 |
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Children need to feel safe. | ||
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Youth violence takes many forms.
The victim or the perpetrator (or both) may be a young person. Outcomes, severity, and causal factors may differ. Not all children respond to difficult situations in the same way. Figuring prominently in youth violence are the perpetrator's age and developmental level, temperament, community environment, family dynamics, and social and learning experiences. There is no single reason or cause for violent behaviors.
Young people who commit violent offenses often have many simultaneously-existing problems in their lives. The presence of these problems—or risk factors—does not cause violence to occur; it just increases the likelihood that violence will result. Some key risk factors for violence have been identified:14 • peer pressure
Most violent behavior is learned behavior. We all have some potential for violent behavior; we have observed others using violence and know how to do it. "Like money and knowledge, violence is a form of power, and for some youth, it is the only form of power available."15 | ||
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At an early age, children often learn aggression is an effective way to deal with conflict. According to research, it is possible to predict from an eight-year-old's aggressive behavior in school how aggressive that child will be in adolescence and adulthood—including whether he or she will exhibit criminal and antisocial behavior.16
The earlier a child begins to commit violent offenses, the greater likelihood he or she will continue to do so. Studies have found that about 50% of children who begin committing violent offenses before the age of nine become chronic violent offenders during adolescence, compared with about 40% who begin committing violent offenses between the ages of 10 and 12, and 23% who began at age 13 or older.17
Younger juveniles account for a substantial proportion of juvenile arrests and the juvenile court caseload. In the US, about one-third of juveniles arrested in 1997 were under the age of 15. The most common reasons for these juvenile arrests were arson, sex offenses, vandalism, and larceny-theft. It has been shown that less serious problem behaviors precede more serious delinquency. Teenagers who end up in court for serious offenses typically began to have problems at the age of 7.18 As noted youth violence expert James Garbarino says, "violent teens are likely to have been aggressive kids."19
Research indicates that juvenile violence prevention programs that target older children are not as successful as programs that target younger children and their families. These early intervention programs have some characteristics in common: they focus on multiple factors associated with youth violence; they are family-oriented; and they involve long-term efforts, often lasting years.20 | ||
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There is evidence that a good relationship with a parent, marked by warmth and the absence of severe criticism, can have a substantial protective, or "buffering," effect against the development of later antisocial behavior. Evidence from many studies suggests that hostile or rejecting parenting and lack of parental supervision are associated with children's subsequent antisocial behavior and delinquency.21
Much research points to the benefits of early childhood education in reducing or preventing later violent behaviors. A review of seven major studies showed that adolescents who had received early childhood education, when compared to those who had not, had lower rates of delinquency, higher rates of high school graduation, and higher rates of sustained employment.22 Other studies show that preschool education "strengthens children's bonds to schooling." It leads to improved classroom conduct and improved personal behavior as rated by elementary school teachers; children who have had preschool education also show a reduced frequency of being kept after class and a decrease in teenage delinquent behavior.23 And, other research indicates preschool's "lasting beneficial effects" in decreasing delinquency and crime, even in the long term. At the age of 19, those who had had preschool education had fewer self-reports of involvement with the police, in gangs, in serious fights, or in causing someone an injury that "required bandages or a doctor."24
Factors regularly associated with chronic delinquency include a history of antisocial behavior in childhood (such as frequent fighting, hitting, stealing, vandalism, or lying), perinatal difficulties, neurological and biological factors, low school achievement, low IQ, low verbal ability, neighborhoods characterized by social disorganization and violence, parental criminality and substance abuse, inconsistent and/or harsh parenting practices, low socioeconomic status, and exposure to media violence.25 | ||
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Living in violent environments creates an "extra energy drain" for a child, and he or she must be "hypervigilant." The avoidance of risk becomes so extreme it leads to a diminished sense of achievement and mastery.26 For instance, a child who is fearful in her neighborhood will be less inclined to go outside and play; her fear immobilizes her. Her sense of exploration is suppressed, and her comprehensive development is impaired.
Schools Schools have often been regarded as "safe havens" for students; however, a 1999 Gallup poll found that 47% of American parents fear for their children's safety at school. (This may be due in large part to the recent rampages of violence at our nation's schools.) A 1998 study by the National Center for Education Statistics found that about 21% of high schools, 19% of middle schools, and 4% of elementary schools have at least one serious violent crime per year.
But, schools may indeed be one of the safest places for young people, in terms of fatalities. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, fewer than 1% of all homicides among school-aged children occur in or around school grounds or on the way to and from school. To put this issue into perspective, the Justice Policy Institute reports that the number of children killed by gun violence in schools is about half the number of Americans killed annually as a result of being struck by lightning. | |||
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Traditionally, schools have relied on various disciplinary measures to correct behavior problems among students. School discipline reports provide other useful information on school violence. For the 1996-97 school year, Virginia had nearly 102 school suspensions per 1,000 students, and an average of 164 fights per day took place in Virginia schools.27 Virginia data on school violence indicate that physical fighting peaks during the upper middle school years.28
Children deserve to feel secure and out of harm's way in schools. When children's energies are directed toward defending themselves or addressing their fears, they have difficulty learning in school. Researchers found that many children who faced life-threatening situations or who witnessed injuries to others had serious difficulty in concentrating and performing in school29 and that children who experienced violent events "during their first six years of life could not learn in a normal classroom situation. The recurring threats in these children's environment may constitute a `lifelong expectation of aggression, violence, exclusion, derogation, and defeat' for them."30
When dealing with violence, some school-based strategies seem to "turn the tide" effectively. Schools have had success with forms of mediation in dealing with student conflicts. A project that involved fifth graders—many of whom had behavior problems—serving as mediators in aggressive playground incidents was responsible for a more than 50% reduction in such occurrences.31 Research shows that first grade teachers are one of the more powerful determinants for later violence; if they are not viewed as effective by the child, he or she is 20 times more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviors by the seventh grade.32 | ||
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Bullying Bullying is defined as peer abuse in school. It encompasses a continuum of behaviors—from the physical acts of hair pulling, biting, and hitting; to the verbal acts of teasing and name calling; to the emotional acts of humiliating and extorting; to the sexual acts of exhibitionism, harassment, and abuse. While active and assertive play is a normal part of childhood, bullies are characterized by their quickness to start a fight, belligerence, use of force and intimidation, little empathy for others, overt aggression, destructive tendencies, and enjoyment of dominating other children.33
Studies have found that bullying in early childhood may predict the
development of violent tendencies, delinquency, and
criminality.34 Bullying tends to increase in middle school—it
may be used as a strategy to establish dominance in new peer groups as the
students enter a new and bigger school.35 Young bullies have
about a 1-in-4 chance of having a criminal record by the time they are 30;
other children have about a 1-in-20 chance of becoming adult
criminals.36 Guns The ready availability of guns has broadened the scope and severity of violence among youth. Research suggests that one reason for more violent juvenile crime is that juveniles have access to more sophisticated, more lethal weaponry. The "codes of conduct" that applied years ago—that told youth when to walk away, when to talk it out, and when to fight—no longer govern. In the past, conflicts were resolved in violent, but non-deadly ways. Because juveniles now have more access to guns, and the street rules have changed, youth today are likely to resolve their disputes in "more lethal ways."37 Research shows that "handguns are more likely to be owned by socially deviant youth than by their more socially adjusted peers, even in those sections of the country in which firearms and hunting are fairly common."38 The violent use of guns is not limited to conflicts with others; the Children's Defense Fund reports that guns are the most common method of suicide for children. | ||
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Carrying a gun "for protection" does not eliminate the risk of being a victim of gunfire. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention surveyed children who had been shot; 35% of the victims were carrying guns when they themselves were shot.
The Journal of the American Medical Association reports that 1.2 million latchkey children have access to guns when they come home from school. The New England Journal of Medicine states that "the presence of a gun in a home increases the likelihood of homicide in that home almost threefold and of suicide fivefold."
Gunshot wounds—as well as other outcomes of violence—do not always result in fatalities; an injury that does not result in death is defined as an assault. Nationally, the non-fatal assault rate has risen more than 730% in the past 40 years.39 According to the Virginia Department of Health, about 275 Virginia youth are hospitalized for non-fatal assaults each year, at an average cost of $10,400 per hospitalization.
What about children who are "too young" to carry guns? According to a recent Harper's Index, Americans spend more than $100 million on toy guns every year. Do these toys encourage violent behavior? Experiments examining the short-term effects of playing with aggressive toys indicate that youngsters are far more apt to become aggressively stimulated for a time afterward, than to become "more peaceful and cooperative." Studies about long-term effects suggest that rehearsing and reinforcing these "scripts for behavior" firmly entrenches them, and they are then likely to be "generalized to realistic situations."40 | ||
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Media Our society's heavy involvement with the media is often linked to violence. Whether from television, movies, music videos, video games, or the Internet, most experts agree that a child's frequent exposure can lead to a desensitization of mass media violence.41 "Viewing violence in the media can lead to increased violence toward others, increased fearfulness about becoming a victim of violence, increased callousness toward violence among others, and increased self-initiated behavior that exposes one to further risk of violence."42 A primary complaint about media violence is that it rarely depicts the harmful and lasting consequences of real-life violence.
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, the critical period of exposure to media violence is preadolescent childhood.
Youth who recently testified before the American Psychological Association Task Force outlined what they perceive as major influences in the media: the mere presence of violence, the lack of nonviolent role models, the constant imaging of a society in which "the good life" can—and must—be attained, and the media portrayal of aggression as a means to solve conflict.
Television is much different today than it was a decade or so ago. Today, about 98% of American households have television.43 Within these homes, the television is on about 28 hours per week for children 2-11, and 23 hours per week for teenagers. Among children, television viewing occupies more time than any other non-school activity and accounts for more than one-half of leisure time activity.44 | ||
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Recent studies indicate that children with VCR (video cassette recorder) or cable access have seen "more R-rated films than their non-cable, non-VCR counterparts. The fact [is] that many of these films would not be shown on commercial television, or if they were, much of the violence and sex would be cut."45
Television increases its "viewers' potential for perpetrating violence," and it often leads to behavioral and psychological indifference to violence against others, growing mistrust of others, an increased "mean world" view, and an exaggerated view of both the prevalence and appropriateness of violence in the real world.46
More than 60% of men portrayed on American television are involved in violence.47 Unfortunately, this number includes the "good guys" who are idolized by children; many of these heroes "do good" through violent action, which reinforces violence's role in day-to-day activities.
The American Medical Association found that nearly one-third of male felons imprisoned for committing violent crimes reported to have "consciously imitated crime techniques learned from television programs." They also hypothesize that "if television technology had never been developed, there would today be 10,000 fewer homicides each year in the [US], 70,000 fewer rapes, and 700,000 fewer injurious assaults."48
Cartoons often are thought of as innocuous, and not depicting "real" violence. According to the National Coalition on Television Violence, Saturday morning network programming featured 20 violent acts per hour in 1989-90. In a 1991 national survey, 91% of responding teachers reported increased violence among children in their classrooms as a result of "cross-media marketing of violent cartoons, toys, videos, and other licensed products."49 | ||
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Video games "can increase aggression in children, make them more fearful and less trusting, and desensitize them to violent behavior by other people," according to the National TV Violence Study. Some experts believe that certain types of violent video games, which "arm the player with simulated weapons as he blasts his way from one dungeon-like chamber to another, killing as many cyber villains as he can, may be as effective in training killers as flight simulators are in training pilots."50
In a recent study, 357 seventh- and eighth-grade students were asked to identify their preference among five categories of video games: about 32% selected games that involved fantasy violence; almost 30% preferred sports games (many of which contain violent sub-themes); 20% expressed a preference for general entertainment themes; 17% favored games that involved human violence; and fewer than 2% chose games with an educational content.51
Interactive video games have been called "the 1990s version of cops and robbers." In these games, players score points by shooting with guns. A nine-year-old boy described the excitement of "going for the kill" in a game of laser tag: "We all tried to kill each other. . . . We went on a rampage the last ten seconds or so and killed anything we could find."52
Family Violence Exposure to multiple forms of violence at home—including domestic violence, child abuse, and a general family climate of hostility—doubles the risk of self-reported youth violence.53 It has been found that a | ||
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history of child maltreatment increases the chances of juvenile arrest by 53%.54 Children of all ages are affected by domestic violence and by child abuse. Infants exposed to violence may not develop the attachments to their caretaker(s) that are critical to their development; they may suffer from "failure to thrive." Preschool children in violent homes may regress developmentally and suffer sleep disturbances. School-age children may exhibit a range of problem behaviors, including depression, anxiety, and violence toward peers.55
A child who has seen violence at home does not always become violent, but he or she may be more likely to try to resolve conflicts with threats, intimidation, and violence. Research shows that males who witnessed spousal abuse as children are significantly more likely to use violent behavior than non-witnesses.56 Studies have found that child witnesses of family violence—compared to non-witnesses—exhibit more aggressive, antisocial, anxious, depressive, and fearful behaviors, and that they show lower autonomy, social competence, verbal skills, cognitive development, empathy, self-esteem, and motor abilities.57
Gangs Feeling rejected—by peers, by family, or by the community—is a characteristic that is common to youth who commit violent offenses. A desire to overcome this feeling and to "belong" is often cited as a reason for the popularity of youth joining gangs. "Youth are motivated to join gangs to meet the same developmental needs that all youth are seeking—a sense of connection, belonging, and self-definition."58 Gang involvement is prevalent in our country and in the Commonwealth: Virginia reported as much as a 200% increase in youth gang activity in the Commonwealth between 1994 and 1996.59 | ||
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Gang demographics changed beginning in the 1980s. "Delinquent gangs are no longer confined to certain states and to the inner city; and their membership encompasses a wider range, with members as young as 9."60 Two Virginia-specific facts support this statement: youth gangs have been identified in all regions of the Commonwealth, and nearly 60% of Virginia youth gang members in detention centers reported joining their gangs by the age of 13.61
Substance Use The use of alcohol and drugs has been linked to the occurrence of violence. It can impair judgement, reaction time, and inhibitions, which can lead to conflict or violence. It can shape an encounter so that the outcome is different than if one or both parties were sober. The context in which drinking or drug use occurs has independent effects on how events will unfold—and if they will be violent or not. Research has shown that being intoxicated increases the likelihood that a person's language will become "provocative and boastful," often turning minor disputes into violent encounters. Substance use can also exaggerate the "sense of outrage over perceived transgressions of personal codes," which can result in violence to either "exert control or exact retribution."62
The presence of mental illness can be a predisposing factor for violent behavior. However, the diagnosed mental illness most associated with violence is substance abuse. Research indicates that, of the violent individuals diagnosed, 25% were alcohol abusers and 35% were drug abusers.63
One solution to reducing or preventing violence in our society is to incarcerate violent offenders after they have committed a violent act. Young offenders | ||
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are not always committed to the juvenile correctional system. Children and youth held in adult jails are at serious risk of assault and abuse. Compared to juveniles in juvenile facilities, youth housed in adult prisons are eight times more likely to commit suicide, five times more likely to be sexually assaulted, two times more likely to be assaulted by staff, and 50% more likely to be attacked with a weapon.64
The criminal justice system cannot be our primary response to violence. Although the criminal courts are an important part of a comprehensive strategy to reduce violence, they are an act of intervention, rather than prevention. Merely punishing violent offenders is reactive; it does not fully prevent or reduce further violent behavior.65
It is true that some children seem to be immune to succumbing to violent behaviors. Research suggests that a child's resilience can counter the negative effects of violence. Whether this resilience is internal—such as temperament or coping mechanisms—or external—such as organized community programs; high quality schools; committed school personnel; mentors and role models; economic opportunity; adult family members who are nurturing, caring, and responsible; and consistent, structured supervision at home66—it plays an important role in determining whether or not a child will display violence.
Increasing numbers of young people are involved in violent activities—either as the offender or as the victim. Early warning signs for later violent behavior cannot be dismissed. Everyone who comes into contact with a youth—parents, educators, child care providers, clergy, health care providers—has the potential, one way or another, to affect a child's involvement with risk factors that lead to violent actions. | ||
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Just as there is no single cause for violent behaviors, there is no single "quick fix." Some might support getting tougher with offenders. Instilling strong morals might be another option. And, still others might say the solution is to attack violence at its roots through a variety of efforts—such as parental training, early education, social and economic supports, and nonviolent conflict resolution. Taken alone, each solution is too simplistic. Taken together, these options make a strong program for stemming youth violence.67
A comprehensive, integrated approach is necessary to more effectively reduce violence. Some factors have been shown to lessen the likelihood of violence, including early care and education and after-school care; strong and supportive adults in family, schools, and the community; parental monitoring of media in the home; and restricted availability to weaponry.
As concerned Virginians, we must advocate for public policies and actions to reduce violence and its causes. We must focus energy and resources on prevention, rather than intervention. A generation is at risk. | ||
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These quotes appeared as sidebars in
the
Youth violence is very widespread in our
society.
When a child has received the services he or she
needs,
Each violent event is a chance occurrence, in the
sense | ||
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Although many believe that violence is the direct,
inevitable
Road rage begins with tricycle rage
America's fight against violence must begin in the high
chair,
We've seen enough to know that there will be a | ||
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School violence is a community problem
A 1998 study by the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention | ||
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Bullies see the world with a paranoid's eye.
A sampling of gun-related accidents that occurred in Virginia in 1996: - Thinking she heard fireworks, a 3-year-old Norfolk child was killed by gunfire when she raised the blind of her second-story bedroom window. - A 10-year-old Lexington boy was accidentally shot and killed at a shooting range by an instructor with 16 years' experience. - In Portsmouth, a 7-year-old girl, hearing gunfire, hid in the
bathroom. Upon emerging, she was shot and killed in
crossfire. | ||
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A 1993 survey found that 20% of suburban
students
In a 1999 Gallup poll, 61% of voters said that the April
1999
For the last 20 years, there has been one
overriding | ||
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By the age of 18, the average child will have
seen
Few researchers bother any longer to dispute
that
For the kids already at risk for aggressive
behaviors, | ||
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A comparison of delinquent and non-delinquent
youth
Harsh and continual physical punishment by parents
Young adolescents who initiate substance use early
More than one-half of juvenile offenders | ||
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More than 2,500 Virginia juveniles are
incarcerated.
The child's life is not fixed in some unalterable genetic
code
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We can make ourselves and our children safer
Unless we are prepared to invest resources | ||
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Endnotes | |
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1Children's Defense Fund. (1999.) Key facts on youth, crime, and violence. Washington, DC: Children's Defense Fund. 2Ibid. 3Moments in Virginia - compilation. (1999.) Perinatal Progress. 10,2:cover. 4Davidson J & Smith R. (1990.) Traumatic experiences in psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Traumatic Stress Studies. 3,3:459-475. 5Information supplied by the Virginia Department of Health. 6Craig S. (1992.) The educational needs of children living with violence. Phi Delta Kappan. 74,1:67-71. 7Garbarino J, et al. (1992.) Children in danger: Coping with the effects of community violence. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 8Selner-O'Hagan MB, et al. Assessing exposure to violence in urban youth. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. November 1996. 9Children's Defense Fund. 1999 Key facts. 10Ibid. 11Ibid. 12Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). Washington, DC: US Dept of Justice. 13Definition. Webster's Third New International Dictionary - unabridged. (1993.) Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc. 14Commission on Violence & Youth. (1993.) A summary of Violence & youth: Psychology's response. Report of the American Psychological Association. 15Elliott DS. (1994.) Youth violence: An overview. Boulder, CO: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence. 16Eron LD, et al. (1994.) Reason to hope: A psychosocial perspective on violence & youth. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 17Smith S, et al. (1999.) America's youth: Measuring the risk. Washington, DC: Institute for Youth Development. 18Study group. (1998.) Critical findings on serious and violent juvenile offenders. Washington, DC: OJJDP, US Dept of Justice. 19Garbarino J. Speech - What children can tell us about violence. October 26, 1999 - Richmond, VA. 20Carter J. Paper - Domestic violence, child abuse, and youth violence: Strategies for prevention and early intervention. 1999 - for the Family Violence Prevention Fund of San Francisco, CA. 21Yoshikawa H. Long-term effects of early childhood programs on social outcomes and delinquency. The Future of Children (Winter 1995). 5:3. 22Berreuta-Clement JR, et al. (1984) Changed lives: The effects of the Perry Preschool Program on youths through age 19. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation. 23The Consortium for Longitudinal Studies. (1983). As the twig is bent: Lasting effects of preschool programs. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 24Berreuta-Clement JR, et al. 25Yoshikawa H. 26Garbarino J, et al. Children in Danger. | |
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27Cornell DG, et al. (1999) Youth violence prevention in Virginia: A needs assessment. Charlottesville, VA: Curry School of Education, University of Virginia, for the Virginia Department of Health. 28Ibid. 29Pynoos R & Nader K. (1988). Psychological first aid and treatment approach to children exposed to community violence: Research implications. Journal of Traumatic Stress Studies. 1,4:445-473. 30Garbarino J, et al. Children in Danger. 31Cunningham C, et al. (1997.) The effects of primary division, student-mediated conflict resolution programs on playground aggression. Hamilton, Ontario: Chedolce-McMaster Hospitals and McMaster University. 32Garbarino J. Richmond, VA speech. 33National School Safety Center resource paper: School bullying and victimization. (1995.) Partnership of the US Dept of Justice, US Dept of Education, and Pepperdine University. 34Olweus, D. (1993.) Victimization by peers: Antecedents and long-term outcomes. In Rubin KH & Seendorf J (eds), Social withdrawal, inhibition, and shyness. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 35Pellegrini, A. Presentation - Bullying and victimization in early adolescence_description and prevention. August 1999 - University of Georgia. 36Eron LD, et al. 37National Institute on Children, Youth & Families, Inc. Report - From the backshelves: The causes & `solutions' to juvenile crime. April 1998. 38Commission on Violence & Youth. 39Grossman D. (1998.) Trained to kill. Christianity Today. 42,9. 40Eron LD, et al. p. 273. 41Garbarino J. Richmond, VA speech. 42Eron LD, et al. 43Huston AC, et al. (1992). Big world, small screen: The role of television in American society. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. 44Eron LD, et al. 45Ibid. 46Ibid. 47Grossman D. 48June 10, 1992 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association, quoted in Grossman D. 49Carlsson-Paige N & Levin DE. (1991.) The subversion of healthy development and play. Day Care and Early Education. 19,2:14-20. 50Sullivan B. Press release - Interactive video games training teen killers? April 1999 - Conservative News Service. 51Funk JB. (1993.) Re-evaluating the impact of video games. Clinical Paediatrics. 32,2: 86-90. 52Connecting with Kids Internet web site. Address:[LINK NOW INVALID.] 53Carter J. | ||
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54National Institute of Justice. Washington, DC: US Dept of Justice. 55Oregon Children's Services Division. (1993.) Task force report on child fatalities and critical injuries due to abuse and neglect. Salem, OR: Oregon Dept of Human Resources. 56Edleson JL. Presentation - Mothers & children: Understanding the links between woman battering & child abuse. March 1995- National Institute of Justice. 57Ibid. 58Commission on Violence & Youth. 59Cornell DG, et al. 60Commission on Violence & Youth. 61Cornell DG, et al. 62Fagan J. Presentation. 1998-Center for Violence Research and Prevention at Columbia University's School of Public Health. 63Monahan, J. (1996.) Summary of presentation. In: Mental illness and violent crime, part of the National Institute of Justice Research Preview series. Washington, DC: US Dept of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. 64Children's Defense Fund, 1999 Key facts. 65Prothrow-Stith D. (1993.) Testimony prepared for the Joint Senate-House Hearing on Keeping Every Child Safe: Curbing the epidemic of violence 66Partnerships for Preventing Violence Internet web site. Address: http://www.walcoff.com/partnerships/definition.html. 67Long-term solutions - ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education (Institute for Urban and Minority Education) Internet web site. Address: http://eric-web.tc.columbia.edu/monographs/uds107/preventing_longterm.html.
aElliott DS. (1994.) Youth violence: An overview. Boulder, CO: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence. bCommission on Violence & Youth. (1993.) A summary of Violence & youth: Psychology's response. Report of the American Psychological Association. cGarbarino J. Speech - What children can tell us about violence. October 26, 1999 - Richmond, VA. dCommission on Violence & Youth. eThe Consortium for Longitudinal Studies. (1983). As the twig is bent: Lasting effects of preschool programs. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. fCornell DG, et al. (1999) Youth violence prevention in Virginia: A needs assessment. Charlottesville, VA: Curry School of Education, University of Virginia, for the Virginia Dept of Health. gNational School Safety Center resource paper: School bullying and victimization. (1995.) Partnership of the US Dept of Justice, US Dept of Education, and Pepperdine University. | ||
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hCharles Stewart Mott Foundation. (1994.) A fine line: Losing American youth to violence. Flint, MI: CS Mott Foundation. iEron LD, et al. (1994.) Reason to hope: A psychosocial perspective on violence & youth. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. jTime magazine, April 6, 1998. kAmerican Medical Association. A summary of Facts about virtual violence, June 1995. lConnecting with Kids Internet web site. Address: http://www.cassmedia.com/archives/intviol.html. mCommission on Violence & Youth. nMiller G. (1989.) Violence by and against America's children. Journal of Juvenile Justice Digest XVII,12:6. oSmith S, et al. (1999.) America's youth: Measuring the risk. Washington, DC: Institute for Youth Development. pCornell DG, et al. qRess D & Gore M. Kids in a mess. Richmond Times-Dispatch, October 17, 1999. rShepherd RE. Column - Focusing on the Playpen or the State Pen, based in part on the 1995 Annual Report of the Coalition for Juvenile Justice to the President, the Congress and the Administrator of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, US Dept of Justice. | ||